The Scientific Approach to Buddhist Study－Cosmology (VI)

Earthquake, Earth and Inner Earth (II)

Lecturer/Sun-Don Lee (Leader of Forshang Buddhism)
Compiler/Li-Kang Ho (Director, Department and Institute of Pharmacology, National Yang-Ming University)
Translator/Helena Chou (Resident Instructor of Forshang Buddhism World Center, L.A. Branch)

The precise dimensions of a geoid can be measured accurately via satellite. This state-of-the-art technology measured the diameter of Earth across the equator to be 40 kilometers more than that of diameter from pole to pole (12755.89 kilometers to 12713.12 kilometers). Based on Newton’s law of gravity, the mass of Earth has been calculated to be 5.976 >×10²⁴ kilograms – the Earth’s average density, then, is 5.518 g/cm³ (5.518 times that of water.) As the surface rocks of Earth only have an average density of 2.8 g/cm³, the Earth’s center must have a greater density. Does the density rise with depth throughout to the Earth’s center? The basic seismic study shows that this hypothesis is not correct and Earth actually consists of different layers in structure, and that a close check by drilling through stratums, however, still cannot be realized at the present stage.

Earthquake is useful in the study of the stratum

What are the scientist’s understandings of Earth below the surface? Hypotheses of stratums are developed through seismology. For the accurate study of earthquake, a device must first be made to experience and detect the waves. In 1880, the English engineer John Milne devised the first seismograph of its kind. In its simplest form, a seismograph consists of a massive block suspended by a comparatively weak spring from a support firmly fixed in bedrock. When the earth moves, the suspended block remains still because of its inertia. However, the support moves with Earth’s motion. The motion is recorded on a slowly rotating drum by means of a pen attached to the stationary block. (Nowadays, two blocks are used. One is set to record the North-to-South waves and the other is set to record the East-to-West waves.) Most quakes do not come from the bedrock and therefore have no effect on the seismograph. Nowadays, in order to eliminate the drag of pen on paper, the most precise seismograph uses a ray of light to mark light-sensitive paper with traces.

The seismograph enables humans to do detailed studies on waves. Surface waves and bodily waves are the two major kinds that are most easily detected. The surface waves follow the curve of Earth’s surface, while the bodily waves go through the interior. Through this shortcut, the bodily waves arrive first at the seismograph. The bodily waves are of two types: primary ("P waves") and secondary ("S waves"). The primary waves, like sound waves, travel by alternate compression and expansion of the medium (rather like the pushing together and pulling apart of an accordion). Such waves can pass through any medium - solid, liquid, or gas. The secondary waves, on the other hand, have the form of snakelike wiggles at right angles to the direction of travel, but they cannot travel through the body of a liquid or through a gas.

The primary waves move faster than secondary waves and arrive first at the seismographic station. By studying the arrival time of the secondary waves, the distance to the epicenter of an earthquake could be measured. The epicenter (the point at the earth’s surface over the disturbed rock) can be determined by three seismographic stations or more: the convergent point of three circles drawn on three radius is the epicenter. The speed of both the primary and secondary waves is affected by rock substance, temperature and pressure, as shown in the lab research. Thus, earthquake waves can be used as probes to investigate conditions deep under the earth’s surface.

A primary wave near the surface travels at 9 km/sec; while at 1600 kilometers below the surface, its velocity, judging from the arrival times, must be nearly 13 km/sec. Similarly, a secondary wave has a velocity of less than 5 km/sec near the surface and 6.8 km/sec at the depth of 1600 kilometers. Since increase in velocity is a measure of increase in density, we can estimate the density of the material far beneath the surface. As we mentioned before, the surface rocks of Earth have an average density of 2.8 g/cm³, 1600 kilometers down, it amounts to 5 g/cm³, and 2900 kilometers down to nearly 6 g/cm³. At the depth of 3000 kilometers, there is an abrupt change – secondary waves are not transmitted at all. Therefore, in 1906, an English geologist Richard Dixon Oldham pointed out that all areas below this depth are liquid – waves have reached the boundary of liquid core. As primary waves reach this area and enter the liquid core, the waves are refracted to change the direction of travel abruptly.

The boundary of liquid core is called Gutenberg discontinuity, named for the German geologist Beno Gutenberg, who in 1914 defined this boundary, pointing out that the core extends to about 3500 kilometers from the planetary center. The Earth’s density at different depth was calculated by an Australian mathematician Keith Edward Bullen in 1936, based on the data gathered in earthquake studies. His findings were evidenced in the big earthquake of Chile in 1960. Therefore, we may assume that the density leaps from 6 to 9 g/cm³ above this Gutenberg discontinuity and continues to increase at even increments to 11.5 g/cm³at the Earth’s center.

The Liquid Core and Mantle

"Liquid Core Theory" says that the core consists of substances with the density of 9.0 ~ 11.5 g/cm³ under the extremely high temperature and pressure at the center of the earth. The pressure is estimated to be from 1550 ton/cm³ at the outer core to about 3875 at the Earth’s inner center. The temperature is comparatively indefinite. However, from what has been learned in deep mines, temperature rises with depth. Based on the thermal conductivity, geologists estimated (rather roughly) that the temperature of the liquid core is about 5000 Centigrade (the center of Jupiter might reach up to 50000>∘Centigrade).

The core consists of some common elements. These substances comprise one third of Earth’s mass in the core of merely half of Earth’s radius. The most common heavy element in the universe is iron, of which the specific gravity is 7.86 g/cm³ at the Earth’s surface, but amounts up to 9 ~ 12 g/cm³ under the extremely high pressure of the core. However, it is liquid at the core. Meteorites provide more evidence. These falling meteorites may be divided into two categories: stony meteorites, of which the major component is silicates, and iron meteorites, of which the components include 90% of iron, 9% of nickel and 1% of other elements. Many scientists believe that meteorites are debris of scattered small planets. Some bigger ones contain both metallic and rocky components. As a matter of fact, before 1866 when geologists began to explore the core, the French geologist Gabriel August Daubrire had already pointed out that the core is made of iron, based on component analysis of iron meteorites.

In terms of the structure of Earth, most geologists approve the liquid nickel-iron core theory. Nevertheless, some still brought out theories that are even more precise. In 1936, the Danish geologist Inge Lehmann tried to explain some disturbing phenomena, such as, some primary waves appearing in the shadow zone, when most of these waves are offset. He thus believes that a discontinuity exists at about 1200 kilometers from Earth’s center, causing some waves to be refracted to the shadow zone. Gutenburg supported this theory. Many geologists today agree that there are some differences between the liquid nickel-iron outer core and the inner core, being probably very slight variations in their solid or chemical components. The 1960’s big earthquake in Chile brought a moderate quake to the entire planet and the speed of waves happened to agree with the prediction based on considerations of the inner core. This powerful evidence further proved the existence of the inner core.

The layer surrounding the liquid nickel-iron core is called mantle, which is composed of silicates. Judged by the speed of waves that pass through this layer, these silicates are different from the typical surface rocks of Earth - a concept that was first brought up by an American physicist/chemist Leason Heberling Adams in 1919. This substance is generally considered to be an olivine type of rock (green in color), containing a great amount of magnesium, iron, and a very small amount of aluminum. The mantle does not extend to the surface of Earth. A Croatian geologist, Andrija Mohorovicic, studying the waves produced by a Balkan earthquake in 1909, decided that there must be a sharp increase in wave velocity at a point about 32 kilometers beneath Earth’s surface. This Moho discontinuity is now known as the upper surface of Earth’s mantle.

The crust and the upper mantle can be detected with previously mentioned surface waves. Surface waves, like bodily waves, are of two types: Love wave, discovered by Augustus Edward Hough Love, is horizontal moving like a snake crawling on the earth; Rayleigh wave, named after an English physicist John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, is vertical moving like a sea snake swimming in the seawater.　

In the well-known bodily wave analysis by Maurice Ewing of Columbia University, he pointed out that the thickness of crust varies. The thinnest portion is at the sea floor of oceanic basin, where Moho discontinuity is only 10 to 16 kilometers below sea level. While the sea is 8 to 10 kilometers deep, the crust under the ocean deeps may be only 5 kilometers thick. On the other hand, the Moho discontinuity averages 32 kilometers beneath the continents (for example, it is about 35 kilometers at New York). The crust might be up to 64 kilometers under mountain ranges. This fact and the additional evidences obtained from the gravity measurement indicate that mountain rocks do have lower density.

The Liquid Earth

In fact, most geologists have approved a point, that is, Earth consists of two major components – silicates mantle and nickel-iron core (similar to the composition of egg white and yolk). They also think that Earth was liquid in its early stage and may later have contained two insoluble liquids. Liquid silicates, which is lighter, floats on the top and cools down as it radiates heat to the space. The liquid iron, being kept under and not directly exposed, is very slow in releasing the heat and therefore may still be liquid up to the present stage. Of course, not all the geologists support the theory of the liquid earth stage. The American chemist Harold Clayton Urey especially insists that Earth has always been solid. He refuted that the huge solid iron core of the earth can still be formed in the gradual separation process of iron. Even now, iron is still gradually shifting from the mantle to the core at a speed of 50000 ton/sec.

A Journey to the Center of the Earth – A New Episode
　

It is generally believed that people would not doubt the scientific evidences, but are hypotheses also as true as they are? In the tide of the internet, obtaining knowledge is not limited in the classroom any more. In a time of knowledge explosion, let us browse the internet for alternative statements. The following are the personal opinions and interesting stories in A Journey to the Center of the Earth – A New Episode by the Assistant Professor Chien Chou of the National University of Chinese Culture (http://www.ufo.org.tw/study/fk15.htm).

Humans have appeared on this blue planet for at least three million years. But how much understanding do we have about Earth itself? The American Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd once led an exploration team in February, 1947 that entered the inner earth from the North Pole and found a big flying saucer base, the extinct animals and plants still on the Earth’s surface, and "super beings" with advanced technologies. However, this record was banned by the U.S. government.

Most studies of "The Hollow Earth" mention this unusual case. According to Byrd’s flight log, the exploration team was stationed at an Arctic base. On February 19, 1947, all preparations were complete for an exploration flight northward. The sextant and compasses were very well examined and radio reception was normal. Slight turbulence was noted from easterly direction at altitude of 2321 feet. Correction to 1700 feet, no further turbulence, but tailwind increased. Turbulence was later encountered again. When increasing altitude to 2900 feet, flight conditions was back to smooth again. Below, vast ice and snow and coloration of yellowish nature were noted, dispersing in a linear pattern. Reddish and purple colors were noted also. They circled this area two full turns and relayed information concerning colorations in the ice and snow below. Both Magnetic and Gyro compasses began to gyrate and wobble and failed to give the heading. There was no indication of icing. In the distance were what appeared to be mountains. 29 minutes elapsed flight time. Those were mountains of small range, but never of illusions.

From the start of the arctic flight, unusual scenes were passed along the way. The aircraft was guided by flying saucers to meet a new city. When altitude changed to 2900 feet, strong turbulence was again encountered. Crossing those mountains and still proceeding northward, green valley appeared below with a stream running through the center portion. To the left side, great forests grew on the mountain slopes. Compasses began spinning again and the gyroscope was oscillating back and forth! When descending to 1400 feet, a sharp left turn was executed to better examine the valley below. It was green with either moss or a type of tight knit grass. The light there seemed different because the Sun could not be seen. A large elephant-like animal was spotted. When altitude was decreased to 1000 feet, an extinct huge elephant – the Mammoth was suddenly spotted through binoculars. More rolling green hills appeared again. The outside temperature was 74 degrees Fahrenheit! All the navigation instruments seemed normal again, but the radio was still not functioning.　

The countryside below was more level, and a city was found. The aircraft seemed light and oddly buoyant. Off the port and the right wing appeared disc-shaped, radiant aircraft with indescribable markings on them. Byrd’s plane lost control to an invisible grip of some type. Things even more incredible happened then. The radio crackled and a voice came through in English with a slight Nordic or Germanic accent. A message was sent to bid the admiral welcome, telling him to relax and that the plane would land safely in 7 minutes. Though the engines of the plane had already stopped running, the plane had a safe landing in slight shudders as if caught in some unseen elevator.

Several tall men with fair skin and blond hair appeared. They found themselves in a shimmering city pulsating with rainbow hues of color. Those men seemed unarmed. Byrd and his radioman were received in a most cordial manner. They were boarded on a platform-like vehicle with no wheels, moving toward the glowing city with great swiftness. The city seemed to be made of a crystal material. Soon they arrived at a large building and were given some type of warm and delicious beverage. After about ten minutes, Bryd was separated from his radioman temporarily and followed those men into an elevator to move downward for some moments. The door then lifted silently upward. Byrd proceeded down a long hallway lit by a rose-colored light that seemed to be emanating from the very walls themselves. They stopped before a great door inscribed with strange words. What happened after Byrd entered the room was even more astounding.

Byrd repeated words like "never seen before, inconceivable, indescribable" to describe the exquisite and delicate room he saw. The voice of those beings was melodious and cordial, telling the admiral that he was admitted into there because of his noble character and reputation on the Surface World. They told Byrd that the name of their domain was "Arianni" and told him the reason he was summoned there. Their concern of the surface world began at the alarming time when the U.S. dropped the first two atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. They sent out their flying machines, the "Flugelrads," (which is a German word, meaning flying wheels) for investigation.

Though that was past history, the inner world, with a culture and science that was many thousands of years beyond the human race, never interfered before in the human wars. Because they did not want the atomic weapon to be used again, they had sent out their delegates to the powers of our human world but their messages were not heeded. By inviting the admiral to their domain, they wanted to deliver a message that our Surface World was heading toward destruction. But their delegates were treated in an unfriendly manner and their Flugelrads were pursued and fired upon with malice by our fighter planes. Every flower of human culture was trampled. The darkness would cover the earth like a pall. The world would be caught in vast chaos. The dark ages would come, but a new world would rise from the ruins. The beings of the inner earth would help humans of the Surface World revive the culture of the human race.

After the meeting, Byrd returned in the same way he came to join his radioman Howie again. Under the guidance of two flying machines, Byrd’s plane reached an altitude of 2700 feet and arrived back at the station. Before those beings left, a radio message came through: "Auf Wiedersehen." (It means good-bye in German.) The plane landed 27 minutes later. On March 11, 1947, Byrd attended a staff meeting at the Pentagon. All of his statements were duly recorded and President Harry S. Truman was advised. The meeting lasted for 6 hours and 40 minutes. Byrd was then interviewed intently by Top Security Forces and a medical team and ordered to remain silent. As a military man, Byrd obeyed the order. Later on Dec. 24, 1965, Byrd wrote on his diary the following thoughtful words: That Land Beyond the Pole, That Center of the Great Unknown.

Is the Inner Earth Another Planet?

If what is stated above is true, the Earth center is supposed to be different from all the known structures. Mr. Chien Chou made some assumptions in regard to the space of the inner earth.

The core-mantle boundary is called the discontinuity, which is an interface of two different substances. The solid mantle consists of silicates while the liquid outer core, as most scientists believe, the admixture of iron and oxygen, a high-density substance. How great is the density change at the discontinuity of the core-mantle boundary? The 77.74% increase of density means that the density of the outer core is as 1.8 times great as that of the mantle. Why is the change so big? This is mainly because the mass of Earth and its moment of inertia can be calculated by the magnitude of gravitation force and equations of dynamics. If deducting the known portion of crust and mantle, the remaining mass and the moment of inertia shall be absorbed by the core and the density of the core must thus be greatly heightened. The high density of the core is considered to come from iron. The two elements of the outer core - iron and oxygen, do not admix into ferrous-ferric iron oxide under tremendous pressure but a substance with a much greater density than that of ferrous-ferric iron oxide.

The thermal convection cells generated in the liquid outer core are considered a separated model while the mantle is involved in another model. The Earth’s internal heat originated at base of the mantle rises to the Earth’s surface to form an opening at the crust. For example, a volcanic island arc along the Pacific Rim was yielded from this location. The plates then drift apart to two sides. A sea trench along the East of Taiwan was formed when the plate that drifted to this location descended to the deep mantle. This is the model. These two models that are separated by the discontinuity at the core-mantle boundary are the standard models (both models) confirmed by the scientists today for the internal structure of the earth. But are these models appropriate? In the 1960s, geologists formed two different hypotheses. One thinks that the substance on both sides of discontinuity should be consistent and there should be no sharp increase in density, whereas the other thinks that the density is supposed to increase sharply. Either side holds to their own opinions.

Later on, scientists apply HDAC (Hydrothermal Diamond Anvil Cell) to compress substances with the face of a diamond into the same pressure and temperature as that at the boundary in the interior of the earth where iron and oxygen can be admixed. After this equipment was successfully invented, scientists are able to make the same substance that exists in the outer core. Then, all the geologists headed toward that direction. The other hypothesis declined ever since. Let’s think about this. On this planet even if we can create the admixture of iron and oxygen, is that substance really what the core is made of? It is still uncertain! Who is able to penetrate two thousand kilometers deep to the core to get a specimen? That is impossible. This is only a hypothesis and humans happen to be able to create that imaginary substance with the HDAC (Hydrothermal Diamond Anvil Cell). However, that does not mean that this must be the substance the core is comprised of.

As for the other hypothesis, it is believed that the density of this area is supposedly consistent with no sharp increase. To calculate with this model, the earth is obviously short of some mass. How much is it short? 14.27%. That is, the earth is only 85.73% of the total mass known so far. Where does the short portion go? This portion of mass is of course existent. The Earth’s interior might be this: that portion of the Earth’s mass might be derived from another planet in the inner space of the earth. Based on a single thermal convection cell for the internal structure of the earth, the computer calculation discovers that in another space in the Earth’s interior exists another planet, which is 1.3 times bigger than Mars and makes up the short portion of the Earth’s mass.

This Earth model is only a hypothesis based on science documents that require further validation. How do we validate such a hypothesis? This hypothesis applies the current available data of the earth to probe the wobbling of the Earth’s axis. Sun’s and Moon’s gravitational pull on Earth results in the different calendars and the disturbance of motions. Besides, there is another phenomenon called wobble, that is, the Earth’s axis through the North and the South Pole wobbles. Scientists have found in their studies two different wobble cycles exhibited by Earth: one is the 12-month cycle, and the other is the 14 month-cycle called Chandler wobble.

This wobble has already been under observation for more than a century, but till now no causes have been found and no explanations provided. It is not a wobble that can be caused by some natural forces, such as earthquake, typhoon, tides, nuclear explosion, or volcanic eruption. Considering the heavy weight of the Earth, the factor that could affect Earth’s cycle of wobbling has to be considerably great. The Moon orbits the Earth, always facing the earth the same way, turning in a synchronized rotation. Similarly, the planet in the Earth’s interior also synchronizes with Earth’s rotation. The Earth’s axis does not accord with the Moon’s axis, meaning that an acute angle exists between the two axes that results in a disturbance of motions. Likewise, the two axes of the Earth and the interior planet may not overlap exactly. The acute angle results in Chandler wobble on the Earth’s axis.

From the perspectives provided by Master Lee and Mr. Chien Chou, is the center of the earth hollow? Is there another planet? Has the earth a layer or multiple layers? There are many points that deserve our deep thinking. In Hyperspace by Michio Kaku, he believes that, in the fast pace of the human technology development, it is indeed possible that the human civilization could advance from so-called Type 0 civilization to Type III civilization. At that time, humans master the energy of an entire stellar system. Humans can also travel in space or in the inner earth in a much more advanced way. That would be the time when we can validate these statements. Will the "Encounter of the Third Kind," as described in the movies, also happen then? Or, as Master Lee said, "As long as you can live for fifty more years, you will be able to see." I would be about 100 years old by then! Keep it up!

References

Exploring the Earth and the cosmos, 1986, published by Newton Publishing Co, by Issac Asimov.
The Blue Planet, translated by Huan-Hua Tseng, Yin-Ho Publishign Co., 1994, Taipei
Hyperspace: a scientific odyssey through parallel universes, time wraps, and the tenth dimension, Michio Kaku, Oxford University Press, 1994
A Journey to the Center of the Earth – A New Episode, Chien Chou,
http://www.ufo.org.tw/study/fk15.htm

	Figure 1: Gravity meter: The two small spheres, as pulled by the big sphere, cause the fiber cord to turn and the mirror attached to the cord reflects the light onto the scale, indicating the measurement of a delicate gyration.
	Figure 2: At the present, the results of seismic studies show that the "Surface Wave" moves along the surface and the "Bodily Wave" is refracted when it reaches the liquid core. The "Secondary Wave," not being able to penetrate the liquid core, disappears. Thus, earthquake waves are useful in studying the structure of the Earth's interior.
	Figure 3: The state-of-the-art scientific instrumentation still cannot provide scientists with the real understanding of the Earth’s interior. In the future, more and more scientists will elevate their energy and wisdom by means of the spiritual cultivation to penetrate time and space and to reveal the truth of the universe.
	Figure 4: Each longitude in every 36 degree coincides with an energy variation in space. To add in the South Pole and the North Pole, there are altogether twelve places that have an extraordinary energy field. They are Bermuda, ChengTu Plain in China, Himalaya Mountains, Egyptian Pyramid, Easter Island, Maya…etc. These areas are easy access to Space-time zone, causing the disappearance of people or objects.
	Figure5: Each longitude in every 36 degree coincides with an energy variation in space. To add in the South Pole and the North Pole, there are altogether twelve places that have an extraordinary energy field. They are Bermuda, ChengTu Plain in China, Himalaya Mountains, Egyptian Pyramid, Easter Island, Maya…etc. These areas are easy access to Space-time zone, causing the disappearance of people or objects.
	Figure 6: Nuclear weapons lead the human race to destruction and the peace of the surface world began to concern the inner world.
	Figure 7: Bryd's Flight Log has become an important document for the study of inner earth.
	Figure 8:If the density at the core-mantle boundary is consistent, then there will be a 14.27% shortage when calculating the Earth's mass. That is, the Earth's mass would be only 85.73% of the known total. Then, where is the short mass?
	Figure 9:Scientists have found in their studies two different wobble cycles exhibited by Earth: one is the 12-month cycle, a yearly wobble caused obviously by the changes of the season. The other is the 14-month cycle called Chandler wobble. However, up to the present, no explanation could yet be provided, and Chien Chou believes that this is an effect caused by another planet in the Earth's interior.
	Figure 10: Master Lee predicted that sixty years later scientists would have developed the equations of cosmic dynamics to figure out how the flying saucers penetrate time and space. At that time, outer space travel or inner earth travel would become human's coolest game.

Recite the above Nine Word Zen Prayer
to unite with the universal energy.